Abstract
The majority of faunal studies focus on diversity and endemism on elevational gradients. It is claimed that a complex interplay of factors explains the variability of observed gradient patterns, including non-biological ones such as differences in sampling regime. Little is known of factors influencing bird community composition at local levels in tropical rainforest. Along successional gradients, habitat structure and tree species composition influence bird community structure, wherein structurally and floristically similar sites tend to have similar bird communities. In addition, canopy dwelling species have been often ignored or under sampled due to logistical problems. The present study explores variations in local bird community structure along a disturbance gradient in a tropical rainforest of the Western Ghats of India using traditional ground-based sampling in conjunction with canopy sampling.References
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, Revised edition. Bombay. Oxford University Press.
Anderson, D.L. (2009): Ground versus canopy methods for the study of birds in tropical forest canopies: Implications for ecology and conservation. Condor 111: 226-237.
Anderson, S.H., H.H. Shugart & T.M. Smith (1979): Vertical and temporal habitat utilization within a breeding bird community. Pp. 203-216. In: Dickson, J.D., R.N. Conner, R.R. Fleet, J.A. Jackson & J.C. Kroll (Eds): The Role of Insectivorous Birds in Forest Ecosystems. Academic Press, New York.
Andrade, GI. & H. Rubio-Torgler (1994): Sustainable use of the tropical rain-forest - evidence from the avifauna in a shifting cultivation habitat mosaic in the Colombian Amazon. Conservation Biology 8: 545-554.
Barker, M. & S.L. Sutton (1997): Low-tech methods for forest canopy access. Biotropica 29: 243-247.
Bell, H.L. (1982): Abird community ofNew Guinean lowland rainforest. 3. Vertical distribution of the avifauna. Emu 82: 143-162.
Blake, J.G. & B.A. Loiselle (2001): Bird assemblages in second-growth and old-growth forests, Costa Rica: perspectives from mist nets and point counts. Auk 118: 304-326.
Blankespoor, G.W. (1991): Slash-and-bum shifting agriculture and bird communities in Liberia, West Africa. Biological Conservation 57:41-71.
Bongers, F. (2001) Methods to assess tropical rain forest canopy structure: an overview. Plant Ecology 153: 263-277.
Bowman, D., J.C.Z. Woinarski, D.P.A. Sands, A. Wells & V.J. McShane (1990): Slash-and-bum agriculture in the wet coastal lowlands ofPapua New Guinea - response of birds, butterflies and reptiles. Journal ofBiogeography 17: 227-239.
Brook, B.W., C.J.A. Bradshaw, L.P. Koh & N.S. Sodhi (2006): Momentum drives the crash: mass extinction in the tropics. Biotropica 38: 302-305.
Chao, A. (1987): Estimating the population size for capture-recapture data with unequal catchability. Biometrics 43: 783-791.
Cody, M.L. (1974): Competition and the Structure of Bird Communities. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. 318 pp.
Cody, M.L. (1985): Habitat Selection in Birds. Academic Press, San Diego, California. Pp. 85-129.
Daily, GC. (2001): Ecological forecasts. Nature 411: 245.
Devy, M.S. (1999): Social bee pollination of wet forest canopy trees in Western Ghats. Ph.D. thesis, Madras University, Chennai, India.
Devy, M.S. & P. Davidar (2003): Pollination systems oftrees in Kakachi, a mid-elevation wet evergreen forest in Western Ghats, India. American Journal ofBotany 90: 650-657.
Dunn, R.R. (2004): Recovery of faunal communities during tropical forest regeneration. Conservation Biology 18: 302-309.
Endler, J.A. (1993): The color of light in forests and its implications. Ecological Monographs 63: 1-27.
Fowler, J. & L. Cohen (1986): Statistics for ornithologists. British Trust for Ornithology Guide no. 22, Thetford, Norfolk, United Kingdom.
Frazer, G.W., C.D. Canham & K.P. Lertzman (1999): Gap Light Analyser (GLA), version 2.0: imaging software to extract canopy structure and gap light indices from true-colour fisheye photographs. Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, and the Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY.
Ganesan, R., T. Ganesh, M. Soubadra Devy & P. Davidar (2001): Regeneration dynamics of a wet evergreen forest, southern Western Ghats, India. Pp. 231-234. In: Ganeshiah, K.N., R. Uma Shanker & K.S. Bawa (Eds): Tropical Ecosystems - Structure, Diversity and Human Welfare. Oxford and IBH Publishers Ltd., New Delhi.
Ganesh, T. & M.S. Devy (2000): Flower use by arboreal mammals and its consequence in the pollination of a rainforest tree in the south Western Ghats, India. Selbyana 21(1,2): 60-65.
Gardner, T.G., J. Barlow, L.T.W. Parry & C.A. Peres (in press): Predicting the future of tropical species in a data vacuum. Biotropica doi: 10.1111/j. 1744-7429.2006.00228.X.
Gardner, T.A., M.A. Ribeiro Jr., J. Barlow, T.A.S. Avila-Pires, M. Hoogmoed & C.A. Peres (2007): The biodiversity value of primary, secondary and plantation forests for a neotropical herpetofauna. Conservation Biology 21: 775-787.
Greenberg, R. (1981): The abundance and seasonality of forest canopy birds on Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Biotropica 13: 241-251.
Herzog, S.K., M. Kessler & T.M. Cahill (2002): Estimating species richness of tropical bird communities from rapid assessment data. Auk 19: 749-769.
Hill, J.K. & K.C. Hamer (2004): Determining impacts of habitat modification on diversity of tropical forest fauna: the importance of spatial scale. Journal ofApplied Ecology 41: 744-754.
Johns, A.D. (1996): Bird population persistence in Sabahan logging concessions. Biological Conservation 75: 3-10.
Kalko, E.K.V. & C.O. Handley (2001): Neotropical bats in the canopy: diversity, community structure, and implications for conservation. Plant Ecology 153: 319-333.
Lambert, E.R. (1992): The consequences of selective logging for Bornean lowland forest birds. Philosophical Transactions ofthe Royal Society ofLondon, Series B 335: 443^-57.
Lee, S.-M. & A. Chao (1994): Estimating population size via sample coverage for closed capture-recapture models. Biometrics 50: 88-97.
Lindenmayer, D.B. & J.F. Franklin (2002): Conserving Biodiversity: A Comprehensive Multiscaled Approach. Island Press, Washington. 351 pp.
Longman, K.A. & J. Jenkins (1974): Tropical Forest and its Environment. Longman, London. 196 pp.
MacArthur, R.H. & J. MacArthur (1961): On bird species diversity. Ecology 42: 594-598.
Marra, P.P. & J.V. Remsen (1997): Insights into the maintenance of high species diversity in the Neotropics: Habitat selection and foraging behavior in understorey birds of tropical and temperate forests. Ornithological Monographs 48: 445^183.
Matlock, R.B. Jr., D. Rogers, P.J. Edwards & S.G. Martin (2002): Avian communities in forest fragments and reforestation areas associated with banana plantations in Costa Rica. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 91: 199-215.
Munn, C.A. (1985): Permanent canopy and understory flocks in Amazonia: Species composition and population density. Ornithological Monographs 36: 683-712.
Oksanen J., G.F. Blanchet, R. Kindt, P. Legendre, R.B. O’hara, G.L. Simpson, P. Solymos, M. Henry H. Stevens & H. Wagner (2011): Vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 117-8. http://CRANR-projectorg/package=vegan.
Orlans, GH. (1969): The number ofbird species in some tropical forests. Ecology 50: 783-801
Pearson, D.L. (1971): Vertical stratification of birds in a tropical dry forest. Condor 73: 46-55.
Pearson, D.L. (1975): The relation of foliage complexity to ecological diversity of three Amazonian bird communities. Condor 77: 453^166.
Pearson, D.L. (1977): Ecological relationships of small antbirds in Amazonian bird communities. Auk 94: 283-292.
R Development Core Team (2011): R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0, URL http://www.R-project.org/.
Raaumakers, J.G.W. (1987): Statistical analysis ofthe Michaelis-Menten equation. Biometrics 43: 793-803.
Raman, T.R.S., G.S. Rawat & A.J.T. Johnsingh (1998): Recovery of tropical rainforest avifauna in relation to vegetation succession following shifting cultivation in Mizoram, north-east India. Journal ofApplied Ecology 35: 214-231.
Ramesh, B.R., S. Menon & K.S. Bawa (1997): A Vegetation based approach to biodiversity gap analysis in the Agastyamalai Region, Western Ghats, India. Ambio 26(8): 529-536.
Reagan, D.P. (1995): Lizard ecology in the canopy of an island rain forest. Pp. 149-164. In: Lowman, M.D. & N.M. Nadkami (Eds): Forest Canopies. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
Richards, P.W. (1996): The Tropical Rain Forest: An Ecological Study. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 575 pp.
Smith, A.P. (1973): Stratification of temperate and tropical forests. American Naturalist 107: 671-683.
Sodhi, N.S., L.P. Koh, D.M. Prawiradilaga, I. Tinulele, D.D. Putra & T.H.T. Tan (2005): Land use and conservation value for forest birds in Central Sulawesi (Indonesia). Biological Conservation 122: 547-558.
Sokal, R.R. & F.J. Rohlf (1995): Biometry. 3rd edn. Freeman, San Francisco, California. 429 pp.
Stotz, D.F., J.W. Fitzpatrick, T.A. Parker & D.K. Moskovits (1996): Neotropical Birds. Ecology and Conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 478 pp.
Terborgh, J. (1980): Vertical stratification of a Neotropical forest bird community. Pp. 1005-1012. In: Nohring, R. (Ed.): Acta XVII Congressus Intemationalis Omithologici Deutsche Omithologen- Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Terborgh, J. (1985): Habitat selection in Amazonian birds. Pp. 311— 338. In: Cody, M.L. (Ed.): Habitat Selection in Birds. Academic Press Inc., New York.
Terborgh, J.W. & J.S. Weske (1969): Colonization of secondary habitats by Peruvian birds. Ecology 50: 765-782.
Tobin, J.E. (1995): Ecology and diversity of tropical forest canopy ants. Pp. 129-147. In: Lowman, M.D. & N.M. Nadkami (Eds): Forest Canopies. Academic Press, San Diego, California.
Walther, B.A. (2002a): Vertical stratification and use of vegetation and light habitats by Neotropical forest birds. Journal fur Omithologie 143: 64-81.
Walther, B.A. (2002b): Grounded ground birds and surfing canopy birds: variation of foraging stratum breadth observed in Neotropical forest birds and tested with simulation models using boundary constraints. Auk 119: 658-675 (erratum 120: 234).
Walther, B.A. (2003): Why canopy access is essential to understand Canopy birds: Four examples from the Surumoni Crane project. Omitologia Neotropical 15: 41-52 Walther, B.A. & J.L. Martin (2001): Species richness estimation of bird communities: How to control for sampling effort? Ibis 143: 413-419.
Wiens, J.A. (1989): The Ecology of Bird Communities. Vol. 1. Foundations and Patterns. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 539 pp.
Willson, M.F. (1974): Avian community organization and habitat structure. Ecology 55: 1017-1029.
Wong, M. (1985): Understorey birds as indicators of regeneration in a patch of selectively logged west Malaysian rainforest. Pp. 249-263. In: Diamond, A.W. & T.E. Lovejoy (Eds): Conservation of Tropical Forest Birds. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.
Wright, S.J. (2005): Tropical forests in a changing environment. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 20: 553-560.
Wright, S.J. & H.C. Muller-Landau (2006): The future of tropical forest species. Biotropica 38: 287-301.
Zar, J.H. (1996): Biostatistical Analysis. 3rd edn. Prentice Hall International, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 662 pp.