Abstract
A long-term study was conducted to understand some aspects of the breeding ecology of the Black-necked Crane Grus nigricollis (Family Gruidae) (n=147 pairs) in Changthang, Ladakh. Data to assess the breeding season, courtship, mating, egg-laying and incubation period, egg morphometry, breeding productivity, and recruitment rate were collected from 2003 to 2012. The birds arrived at the breeding grounds from the last week of March to the first half of April. Courtship and mating peaked at 07:00 hrs, 11:00 hrs, and 16:00 hrs, while nest-building activity peaked in late evening (18:00 hrs). Egg-laying started in May and extended up to July. Most birds laid two eggs in a clutch with an average length, breadth, weight, and volume of 107.32 ±1.02 mm, 63.17 ±0.33 mm, 210.85 ±3.17 gm, and 218.96 ±3.67, respectively. The incubation period was 33.88 ±0.3 days. The hatching success, nestling survival rate, and fledgling increment rate were 73.3%, 0.55 ±0.03, and 0.41 ±0.02, respectively, with an overall breeding productivity of 0.73. The current population of Black-necked Cranes with an average recruitment rate of 15.7 ±1.4%, may be considered as stable. Regular monitoring of wetlands and alignment of development projects with conservation and management goals is suggested for maintaining a healthy breeding population of Black-necked Cranes in Ladakh
References
Ahmed, T., A. Khan & P. Chandan (2014): Status of avifauna of Tsokar basin, Ladakh, Indian Trans-Himalaya. Pp. 116–124. In: Serajuddin, M. (Ed.): Biodiversity, environment and functional biology. Excellent Publishing House, New Delhi.
Ahmed, T., P. Chandan & A. Khan (2019): Observations on some nesting birds of the Tso-Kar Basin, Ladakh. Indian BIRDS 15(1): 13–16.
Ali, S. (1976): Status and conservation of the Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) and other wildlife in Ladakh. Report submitted to World Wildlife Fund.
Allan, D.G. (1998): A Review of the Biology and Conservation Status of Cranes. Pp. 13–51. In: Beilfuss, R.D., W.R. Tarboton & N.G. Nathan (Eds): Proceedings African Crane and Wetland Training Workshop.
Arnold, T.W., C.N. De Sobrino & H.M. Specht (2016): Annual survival rates of migratory shore and upland game birds. Wildlife Society Bulletin 40: 470–476.
Bhat, G.M. (1965): The soils of Kashmir. Agriculture Bulletin, Agriculture Department, J & K Government.
Bishop, M.A. (1996): Report on Investigations of Status, Distribution and Winter Habitat Use by Black-necked Cranes in South-central Tibet, 1990-4, ICF Baraboo.
Butler, M.J., K.L. Metzger, C.R. Sanspree, J.W. Cain iii & G.M. Harris (2022): Whooping and Sandhill cranes visit upland ponds proportional to migration phenology on the Texas coast. Wildlife Society Bulletin 46(3): e1290.
Byrkjedal, I. & J.A. Kalas (1985): Seasonal variation in egg size in Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria and Dotterel Charadrius morinellus populations. Ornis Scandinavica 16: 108–112.
Caughly, G. (1974): Interpretation of age ratios. Journal of Wildlife Management 38: 557–562.
Chacko, R.T. (1997): A summer 97 study of the Black-necked Cranes breeding in some remote high altitude areas of Ladakh, India. Unpublished report.
Chandan, P., P. Gautam & A. Chatterjee (2005): Nesting sites and breeding success of Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) in Ladakh, India. Pp. 311–314. In: Boere, G.C., C.A. Galbraith and D.A. Stroud (Eds): Waterbirds around the world. The Stationery Office, Edinburgh, UK.
Christians, J.K. & T.D. Williams (2001): Intraspecific variation in reproductive physiology and egg quality in the European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). Journal of Avian Biology 32: 31–37.
Dehao, L. (1987): The distribution and status of the Black-necked Crane on the Tibetan Plateau. Pp. 45–49. In: Archibald, G.W. and R.F. Pasquier (Eds): Proceedings of the 1983 International Crane Workshop. February 1983. Bharatpur, India. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin, USA.
Dehao, L., Z. Zhijun, W. Zhikang, Z. Zhumei & W. Youhui (1991): On the structure and behaviour of the breeding population of Black-necked Cranes in Songpan Meadow in Sichuan Province. Pp. 83–87. In: J. Harris (Ed.): Proceedings 1987 International Crane Workshop. Qiqihar, Heilongjiang Province, People’s Republic of China. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo.
Drewien, R.C. (1973): Ecology of Rocky Mountain Greater Sandhill Cranes. Ph.D. Thesis.
Drewien, R.C., W.M. Brown & W.L. Kendall (1995): Recruitment in Rocky Mountain Greater Sandhill Cranes and comparisons with other crane populations. Journal of Wildlife Management 59: 339–356.
Dwyer, N.C. & G.W. Tanner (1992): Nesting success in Florida Sandhill Crane. Wilson Bulletin 104(1): 22–31.
Dwyer, N.C., M.A. Bishop, J.S. Harkness & Z.Y. Zhang (1992): Black-necked Cranes nesting in Tibet Autonomous Region, China. Pp. 75–80. In: Stahlecker, D.W. (Ed.): Proceedings of the sixth North American Crane Workshop. North American Crane Working Group.
Flint, P.L. & J.B. Grand (1996): Variation in egg size of the Northern Pintail. Condor 98: 62–165.
Geneletti, D. & D. Dawa (2009): Environmental impact assessment of mountain tourism in developing regions: A study in Ladakh, Indian Himalaya. Environmental Impact Assessment Review 29: 229–242.
Gole, P. (1981): Black-necked Cranes in Ladakh. Pp. 197–203. In: Lewis, J.C. & H. Masotomi (Eds): Crane research around the world: Proceedings of the International Crane Symposium at Sapporo, Japan in 1980 and papers from the World Working Group on Cranes, International Council for Bird Preservation. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, USA.
Higgott, C.G., K.L. Evans & B.J. Hatchwell (2020): Incubation in a temperate passerine: Do environmental conditions affect incubation period duration and hatching success? Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 8: 542179. doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.542179.
Hoyt, D.F. (1979): Practical methods of estimating volume and fresh weight of bird eggs. Auk 96: 73–77.
Hussain, S.A. (1985): Status of Black-necked Crane in Ladakh – 1983, Problems and Prospects. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 449–458.
Hussain, S.A. & B. Pandav (2008): Status of breeding water birds in Changthang Cold Desert Sanctuary, Ladakh. Indian Forester 134(4): 469–480.
Jetz, W., C.H. Sekercioglu & K. Bo¨hning-gaese (2008): The worldwide variation in avian clutch size across species and space. PLoS Biology 6(12): e303. doi:10.1371/journal. pbio.0060303.
Joseph, R. & J.R. Jehl (1971): Patterns of Hatching Success in Subarctic Birds. Ecology 52(1): 169–173.
Kachroo, P., B.L. Sapru & U. Dhar (1977): Flora of Ladakh: An ecological and taxonomic appraisal. Bishen Singh and Mahendrapal Singh, Dehradun, India.
Keast, J.A. & A.J. Marshall (1954): The influence of drought and rainfall on reproduction in Australian desert birds. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 124: 493–499.
Konard, P.M. (1981): Status and Ecology of Wattled Cranes in Africa. Pp. 220–237. In: Lewis, J.C. and H. Masatomi (Eds): Crane Research Around the World: Proceedings of the International Crane Symposium at Sapporo, Japan in 1980. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin, USA.
Kruse, K.L., J.A. Dubovsky & T.A. Cooper (2014): Status and harvests of Sandhill Cranes: mid-continent, Rocky Mountain, lower Colorado River Valley, and eastern populations. Administrative Report, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lakewood, Colorado, USA.
Littlefield, C.D. (1995): Sandhill Crane nesting habitat, egg predators, and predator history on Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon. Northwestern Naturalist 76: 137–143.
Littlefield, C.D. & D.G. Paullin (1990): Effects of land management on nesting success of Sandhill Cranes in Oregon. Wildlife Society Bulletin 18: 63–65.
Littlefield, C.D. & R.A. Ryder (1968): Breeding biology of the Greater Sandhill Crane on Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 33: 444–454.
Littlefield, C.D., J.E. Cornely & B.D. Ehlers (2001): Effects of an early spring burn on greater Sandhill Crane nesting success at Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, Oregon. Proceedings North American Crane Workshop 8: 45–47.
Lovvorn, J.R. & C.M. Kirkaptrick (1982): Recruitment and socially-specific flocking tendencies of eastern Sandhill Crane. The Wilson Bulletin 94(3): 313–321.
Ma, Y.C. (1981): The annual cycle of red-crowned crane. Pp. 94–95–85. In: Lewis, J.C. & H. Masatomi (Eds): Crane research around the world: Proceedings of the International Crane Symposium at Sapporo, Japan in 1980 and paper form the Working Group on Cranes, International Council for Birds Preservation, Baraboo, Wisconsin.
Masatomi, H. (1981): The Red-crowned Crane. Pp. 81–85. In: Lewis, J.C. & H. Masatomi (Eds): Crane research around the world: Proceedings of the International Crane Symposium at Sapporo, Japan in 1980 and papers form the Working Group on Cranes, International Council for Birds Preservation, Sapporo, Japan.
Maxson, S.J. & M.R. Riggs (1996): Nest habitat selection and nest success of greater Sandhill Cranes in northwestern Minnesota. Unpublished report, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, St. Paul, MN.
Murti, S.K. (2001): Flora of Cold Deserts of Western Himalaya. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.
Nesbitt, S.A. (2001): First reproductive success and individuals productivity in Sandhill crane. Journal of Wildlife Management 56(3): 573–577.
Perrins, C.M. (1970): The timing of bird’s breeding season. Ibis 112: 242–255.
Pfister, O. (1998): The Breeding Ecology and Conservation of the Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) in Ladakh India. Unpublished Master Thesis, University of Hull, Hull.
Pomeroy, D.E. (1980): Aspects of the Ecology of Crowned Cranes Balearica regulorum in Uganda. Scopus 4: 29–35.
Rawat, G.S. & B.S. Adhikari (2005): Floristics and distribution of plant communities across moisture and topographic gradients in Tso Kar basin, Changthang Plateau, Eastern Ladakh. Arctic Antarctic & Alpine Research 37(4): 539–544.
Sargeant, A.B. & P.M. Arnold (1984): Predator management for ducks on waterfowl production areas in the northern plains. Vertebrate Pest Conference 11: 161–167.
St. Clair, C.C. (1996): Multiple mechanisms of reversed hatching asynchrony in Rockhopper Penguins. Journal of Animal Ecology 65: 485–494.
Stern, M.A., G.J. Pampush & R.E. Delcarlo (1987): Nesting ecology and productivity of Greater Sandhill Cranes at Sycan Marsh, Oregon. Pp. 249–256. In: Lewis, J.C. (Ed.): Proceedings of the 1985 Crane Workshop Platte River Whooping Crane Maintenance Trust, Grand Island, Nebraska.
Urbanek, R.P. & T.A. Bookhout (1992): Nesting of Greater Sandhill Cranes on Seney National Wildlife Refuge. Pp. 161–172. In: Wood, D.A. (Ed.): Proceedings of 1988 North American Crane Workshop, Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Commission, Nongame Wildlife Program Technical Report No. 12.
Williams, T.D. (1990): Growth and survival in Macaroni Penguin, Eudyptes chrysolophus, A- and B-chicks: do females maximise investment in the large B-egg? Oikos 59(3): 349–354.
Williams, T.D. (1994): Intraspecific variation in egg size and egg composition in birds: effects on offspring fitness. Biological Reviews 69 (1): 35–59.
Winter, S.W. (1991): The Demoiselle Crane in the agricultural landscape of the Ukrainian steppe zone. Pp. 285–295. In: Harris, J. (Ed.): Proceedings of the 1987 International Crane Workshop. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin, USA.
Yang, R., H. Wu, X. Yang, W. Jiang, L. Zou & Z. Xiang (2007): Diurnal Time Budget of the Black-necked Crane during the breeding season. Waterbirds 30(1): 80–85.